African American Female Rappers History. free essay sample

Unfortunately, such a situation does not contribute to the development of really free, liberal and focused on spiritual, moral and intellectual progress of the consumers of the culture. Probably one of the cost interesting, new and, unfortunately, typical example of the domination Of stereotypes in American culture is the development of female black rap music, which has become particularly intensive in 1 sass and is still quite dynamically developing.At first glance black female rap music should be free from traditional stereotypes, it should be innovative and contributing to black female emancipation and increasing the role of black females in the society at large but, in actuality, the situation is absolutely different. Despite the fact that many female rappers pretend to be unique at developing the new image f a free and independent black female, it turns to be that practically all of them, or at least the most popular of them, are ideologically dependent on the male dominance in proper and figurative sense of this word. We will write a custom essay sample on African American Female Rappers History. or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It means that as a rule black female rappers tend to create an image which can be well accepted by the wide audience and which is created on the basis of the dominating ideology in American culture, notably in American rap music that is characterized by the male dominance and the role of a black female is so to say secondary or subordinated to a male.As a result, instead of a new image f a black female that could be independent and free of male dominance, rap music industry and the audience have got a negative image of a black female, or an image of a black female that tends to underline her sexuality. The role and images of black female rappers in American rap music industry Speaking about black female rappers, it should be pointed out that their role and the impact on the development of the culture of African Americans and American culture at large should not be underestimated.Regardless the fact that many of black female rappers were created due to the male rappers they still undi stributed to the progress of rap music industry and introduced something new and founded a basis for further development of rap music among black females on the professional level. The development of black female rappers as a strong power in rap music and culture has started in sass and nowadays it is still popular and interesting.Black female rappers may be viewed differently but their importance for music and culture cannot be denied. At this respect it should be pointed out that many cultural and music critics praise raps role as an educational tool, point out that black women papers are examples of aggressive pro-venom lyricists in popular music, and defend raps ghetto stories as real life reflections that should draw attention to the burning of racism and economic oppression, rather than to question of obscenity (Rose 1994, 1). At the same time, on analyzing the development of black female rappers, it should be said there could be clearly defined two main trends, which have been typical for black female rappers since sass. Initially, black female rappers had to wear the same clothes as men, curse with the same intonation, and adopt a harsh mentality that didnt place much alee on feminine instincts (Nelson 1 998, 188) that was actually a natural consequence of male domination in rap music and culture at large.On the other hand, later a new trend has become popular. Black females broke ground using sex or feminine image which was deliberately underlined. As Nelson George points out, most commercially successful female group (and one of raps bestselling act of any gender) began as slightly chubby B-girls who have evolved into glamour girls, and have been talking about sex since 1986 (1998, 185). Quite noteworthy is the fact that many female rappers used similar themes in their songs.Nonetheless, it is impossib le to objectively evaluate the role of black female rappers without analysis of the work of the most outstanding black female rappers. One of the most popular and well known black female rappers, whose contribution in the development of rap music is undoubted, is Dana Owens, better known as Queen Latish. By the way her adapted Arabic name Latish is quite symbolic and means beautiful, sensitive, kind. She became popular in 1 989 with her hit single Ladies First.According to Monica Lynch, the Tommy Boy executive who put Latish on, the song signaled the empowerment of a new breed of female Macs (Hip Hop Divas 2001, 52). In fact this song arrived quite in time because it came at a period in rap when many female rappers were just disusing one another but not doing the same to their sexist male counterparts. In such a situation her album All Hail was not a sort of an album traditional for black female rappers of that time but it was an album of a woman who was not afraid to confront sexist and disrespectful behavior.As the matter of fact, Queen Latish has managed to put the right messages at the right time for, as many c ritics underlined, the topic of empowerment for the ladies made a big impact on many socially, including capturing the attention of hip-hop journalists debating and documenting the female perspective (Hip Hop Divas 2001, 53). Moreover, her trend to underline female independence and equality often provoked discussions about her heterosexuality and often she was asked whether she was a gay or not.However, Queen Latish was not very successful from commercial point of view for she has got only one gold record but financial side of the business was obviously not the most important in her contribution to the development Of black female rap music. In fact she is an excellent example of positive female representation in rap music since her image is traditionally perceived as positive. As Trench said she represents black women power. Thats why all the ladies were behind her whether they were rap fans or not (Hip Hop Ladies 2001, 56).Unfortunately, Queen Latish is a rare exception with her social and spiritual aims superior to financial ones which were basic for the vast majority of black female rappers later. Another significant personality among black female rappers is Sister Soulful. In fact she is a very gifted person who managed to apply her talent and knowledge in different fields though she is traditionally thought of as a controversial American hip-hop generation author, activist, recording artist, and film producer (Collins 2000, 221 Obviously her talent as a rapper was probably the most significant in her life.It was she who was the female voice of hip-hop formation Public Enemy and her first solo album 360 Degrees of Power was released in 1992. At the same time, it should be pointed out that she was really quite a controversial person, for instance, on commenting the Los Angels riots, she said quite a provoking phrase: If black people kill black people every day, why not have a week and kill white people? (Collins 2000, 222).This statement, being severely criticized by the President Bill Clinton, inspired the creation of the first Sister Soulful moment. However, in late sass she basically focused on her literary career and published her autobiography No Disrespect (1995) and the novel The Coldest Winter Ever (1999). Nonetheless, in her work both as a rapper and as a writer she raised disturbing problems of racial inequality, which sometimes simply overshadow another problem the problem of equality and ruin of stereotypes concerning black females.Nonetheless, Sister Soulful represents relatively new generation of black female rappers while there is a very important figure in the black female movement, which produced a very serious impact on the development of rap music at large and its female branch in particular, and she is MAC Late. Actually she is one of the major black female rappers. Moreover, she was the first who received the gold album. She started her music career very early when she was only 12 and soon after that she signed a contract with First Priority that was obviously a great success for a young African American girl.Naturally she continued her career and she leased her debut album Late as a Rock in 1988 when she was 17 only. It was really a great success but what was really important for her and for black female rappers was the fact that it was a good example for other black female rappers to follow. At the same time, there was also a great danger in it because in such an age she could hardly realize the importance of the message she gave to the audience while her commercial success was not less significant than her success as a rapper.The years to follow she managed to make a guest appearance on a remix of Sinned OConnor l wants your hands on me, which became a dance hit. In sass she continued to release her albums. It is quite noteworthy that she collaborated with other black female rappers such as Missy Elliott Cold Rock a Party. Naturally, her work and her success could not remain unmarked and in December 2004 she was inducted as an honorary member into Sigma Gamma RYO Sorority Inc. In such a way, MAC Late contributed greatly to the development of black female rappers and achieved great results at the very young age.As for her collaborator, Missy Elliott, she was also a very significant personality in the black female rapper music. Actually, she is one of the first female hip hop operators. Among her hits may be named The Rain (Sups Dupe Fly). Shes a Bitchy, Get LIRA Freak On, Lose Control, and Work It. Quite remarkably she started as a singer and songwriter in an R;B group called Siesta though it should be emphasized that her friend Timothy DC Timmy Tim, the producer of her group produced a significant impact on her creative work and her image. Then she continued her career cooperating with Swing Mob, and later Timberland.Elliot and Timberland crafted hit singles for a number of artists between 1995-1997. As a solo rapper, Elliott began her career as a treated vocalist on Gina Thompson The Things You Do and MAC Lets 1996 single Cold Rock a Party. Her debut album was released in 1997, was Sups Dupe Fly, a blockbuster hit that established Missy Elliott as a major force in popular music. It is very important that Sups Dupe Fly was accepted positively by critics though some critics commented that the album tracks, some of which sampled Missy/Monies hits such as Can We and One in a Million, were far inferior to the singles (S exton 1 995, 257). 997 was marked by Elliott perform on Ill Skims girl-power anthem, a hit remix of her song, Not Tonight that obviously underlined her music work as a black female rapper. The next year, she continued her successful music career by writing and producing Totals single Tripping. Missy Elitists second album, Dad Real World (1999) was just as successful as the first as well as Miss So Addictive in 2001.In fact she is very productive and among the albums which were successful may be also named Under Construction (2002), This Is Not a Test (2003), The Cookbook (2005) and she still remains to be popular so that Missy Elliott is still as widely recognized and respected by her peers, mainstream, and underground as ever (Cheney 2005, 410). Moreover, her achievements and success were rewarded and in November 2005, Missy Elliott won Best Female Hip Hop Artist at the 2005 American Music Awards, defeating, by the way, Ill Kim, another famous black female rapper.However, her success was great, but t he quality of her work was probably sacrificed for the sake of commercial success. In such a way commerce has started to prevail over the message the black female rapper, namely Missy Elliott, conveyed to the audience. This trend has become even more obvious in the creative work of Ill Kim who was probably the most commercially successful f all females in the rap industry. On the other hand, Ill Kim was the best at selling the sex image.It is very important to underline that she was introduced to the hip-hop community via the all-male crew Junior Mafia and with a successful introduction in place and her mentor/lover The Notorious B. I. G. Right behind her, Kim locked down the rap world from many (female) competitors for a very long time (Evans 1994, 216). On analyzing her work, it is easy to realize that Ill Kim exploited sexuality to create an image of sweetheart that was to a significant extent the result of her personal need to e loved. It is a well-known fact that Kim left home too soon and this is why she had to hustle men in order to support herself. At that time always had a man to take care of me she remembers. Sometimes, if thought I could get some money out of a guy, Id sleep with. And I got kind caught in that mentality (Hip Hop Divas 2001, 133). Soon she starts transporting drugs lives to boyfriend to boyfriend, learning hard lessons, getting betrayed (Hip Hop Divas 2001, 133). Naturally all these facts from her biography reflected in her creative work and her image where sexuality was particularly significant, hill morality obviously played a secondary role after commercial success.Despite this fact, she was very popular and her debut on Junior Mafias Players Anthem left many rap fans captivated with her raw style and lyrical abilities. When her first album was released she was characterized as the dopiest female MAC thats coming out ever (Hip Hop Divas 2001, 134). It is very important that, being an outstanding black female rapper, Ill Kim was supported by her boyfriend and male rapper Biggie who gave her a lot of help, though mainly at the beginning of her career.But even though his role as started to decline, when the real success has come, the death of Biggie produced a very serious impact on her creative work and she delayed the release of her second album The Notorious for three years. These facts underline the role of male in the progress of black female rappers career and the emphasis on sexuality in Ill Skims career and her image are extremely contrasting to what Queen Laths promotion of black female independence and freedom from stereotypes.Nonetheless, Ill Kim is unique and there has been no female solo artists before as successful as Kim in being raw and owing exactly what male rappers have done to be s uccessful. At the same time, she revealed that black female rappers tend to give the audience the image which is to a significant extent stereotyped and black female independence promoted in sass is gradually replaced by striving for commercial success by all means.In such a way, black female rappers being significantly similar to each other possess their unique characteristics and in general they played an important role in the development of rap music though their image as well as the message they convey to the audience were and remain to be quite controversial. Feminists discourse in rap music To fully realize the controversial character of black female rappers it is necessary to analyses in details their messages and their feminists discourse, which they represent in their creative work.In fact there may be singled out two main trends in the image and style of black female rappers. On the one hand, there are female rappers which attempt to imitate their male counterparts they just tend to be like male rappers, wearing similar clothes, using similar language and style. On the other hand, there are black female rappers which are sometimes defined as a fly-girl leading a very sexually active lifestyle and promoting this image, which becomes their second nature, to the audience. Among such black female rappers may be named MAC Late and Ill Kim.It should be underlined that often, especially in sass, black female rappers were playing in the sexist arena but the promotion of a black female as an independent female who can live her own way withou t males influence and support was quite rare and sometimes resulted in discussions concerning sexual orientation of a rapper as it was in the case of Queen Latish described above. In contrast, many black female rappers were often rasher to one another than to male rappers that naturally did not contributed to the promotion of a positive image of black female rappers at large. Furthermore, an important role for black female rappers played the female audience because, as one of the rappers singled out Women will be your worst critics, but also your biggest fans. The first group of people you goat get are the women. You cant do that by dismissing, and you cant do it by threatening them (Hip Hop Divas 2001, 34). In such a situation, it was strategically important to gain respect and popularity among female audience iris that cannot be fully done by black female rappers through disusing one another.These were the trends that were typical for 1 9805 though present in sass but what has really become the main trend during 1 sass was the increased role of commercial success, which overshadowed all other aspects of black female rappers creative work. In such a situation get rich mentality that has begun to dominate rap music, many artists lose consciousness of the art and will sell garbage in exchange for money (Collins 2000, 348). Unfortunately, many black female rappers simply forgot what their life was like before success had come. As a result the negative image of black female image was promoted by black female rappers and the situation has hardly changed since sass when the black female rappers movement got started to be particularly significant. Moreover, in sass the situation became even worse. The primary concern they were contributing to and continue to do so is making money regardless moral aspects, ideas and messages they convey to their audience through their work and their image.Such a situation is particularly dramatic because many black female rappers exploit sexuality and sexual image and often these females possess good rhyming skills that ere hidden behind pornographic talk because this is what their mentors were producing (Evans 1994, 303). Furthermore, the negative image that is promoted is not the only drawback of black female rappers concerning feminism and emancipation of black female in American society and culture.The fact, which has already been underlined above, that many of them started at a very young age resulted in the lack of consciousness of their mission as representatives Of pop music, of art and primarily as representatives of probably the most deprived part of American society black males which, in order to be really independent and equal to other members of society, have to use all opportunities to promote their positive image, not negative one.Naturally as teenagers, these young black female rappers were mainly concerned with the money they were making than with the image they were portraying and they could hardly be aware of black feminist movement or womanish ideology. At the same time it was quite natural that their discourse and the message they send to their audience was significantly influenced by surrounding reality and mass culture, which, as it has been already emphasized, were full of stereotypes and there were a lot of prejudices concerning black female and their image.Moreover being too young, they could not think absolutely independently. This is why they tended to create the image the audience traditionally expected from them such as exaggerated sexuality and basically negative image. In such a situation there remained little or even no room for feminist ideology and wider representation of real black female image, which was significantly different from stereotyped view on them.In other words, they did not fully realize the opportunity to change public opinion in relation to black females, on the contrary they Only reinforced the negative image mistakenly perceived by the vast majority of the audience as traditional and typical for bla ck females. Probably because of their age they could not act otherwise but at the same time it is necessary to realize that such a situation has not gone to the past.Moreover, now the black female rappers discourse tends to be far from what may be treated as really feminist discourse oriented on the protection and promotion of rights of black females, in contrast sexuality and servile emphasis on the audiences stereotypes are promoted and what is even worse new black female rappers choose such an image and use similar discourse over and over again. As a result portraying controlling images, being ruinous for black female rappers as representatives of black feminist movement, are getting to be more and more popular and widely spread nowadays.The dominant sexual and racial ideologies in American culture A logical question that arises, when the situation with black female rappers is analyzed, is the question concerning the reasons of such a discourse which obviously lacks feminists promotion and is rather subordinated to troopers. In addition to the reasons mentioned in previous chapter, it should be said that black female rappers willingly or not are a part of American culture and consequently they are subordinated to the dominant ideologies which are accepted by the vast majority of American society and which, in fact, they should change but currently they fail to.It is an undeniable fact that the dominant sexual and racial ideologies in American culture are very discriminating in relation to black females and consent neatly bl ack female rappers had to obey to these ideologies in order to gain popularity of he possibly wider audience but, on the other hand, it is necessary to realize that by doing so they can hardly gain real respect neither the audience at large nor black females in particular.Speaking about the dominant ideologies it is necessary to clearly realize that they are developed and belong to white males and the changes that got started in American society are too slow to change the dominant ideology somehow. Naturally, in such a situation, black female rappers has a little choice to do and their choice in favor of popularity, even though it weakens dramatically black female movement, is quite pragmatic and natural.It is noteworthy to refer to George Nelson who estimated that for much of hip-hops history, it has been a truism that the male rap consumer, white and black, simply wont accept females (1998, 185). In fact rap has always been considered a private and male dominant space. This is why at the beginning it was extremely difficult for black female rappers to gain success and the breakthrough made in mid-sass was particularly significant.Remarkably, this breakthrough coincided with the work of such a black female rapper as Queen Latish who was probably the most eager rapper who strives for promotion of an image of a black female efferent from standardized and this image was obviously very successful for her as an artist but not in commercial aspect. However, such a position of Queen Latish and to a certain extent similar to her MAC Late led to their severe critique and it is significant that the females who get the most respect in hip-hops primarily male domain Queen Latish and MAC Late are relentlessly dogged by rumors that they are lesbians.Whether these rumors are true or not, the message is evident: a female cant be tough or strong or clear or exceptionally skillful at hip-hop unless she has sacrificed the thing hat makes her a real girl (Smith 1 995, 127). Furthermore, as Trivia Rose estimates, such female rappers often felt that they were being used as a political baton to beat male rappers over the head, rather than being affirmed as women who could open up public dialogue to interrogate sexism and its effect on young black women (1 994, 150).Naturally, it is impossible to speak about equality and independence of black female rappers and their creative work since, being few compared to the mass of male rappers, they could hardly change stereotypes and dominant ideologies in a day, a year or even a aced because as a rule they have been viewed as interlopers either butch anomalies or cute novelties who by some fluke infiltrated a boys game (Light 1999, 177). On facing such a resistance, from the part of the mass audience influenced by the dominant sexual and racial ideologies in American culture black female rappers, as one of them Kid-N-Play said, have to work twice as hard [as males] to get half the credit (Rose 1994, 146). As a result, it is not surprising that many black female rappers are harsher to one another than to male rappers that may be also explained by low number of lack female rappers compared to males and by their intention to please the predominantly male audience for the sake of commercial success.This often led to limiting female rap songs to verbal catfishes and the typical battle Of the sexes, especially in 1 sass. Furthermore, it should be pointed out that since sass there have been TV main ways on which black female rappers could achieve success. On the one hand, there is the l am as tough and as good just as the next man role but very few black female rappers have chosen this way to success, though those who have chosen it are the most respected.On the other hand, there is an alternative that the majority of black female rappers have chosen and nowadays it gets to be more and more popular, is simply to sell sexual images that is not surprising because it is acceptable by the dominating male ideology in the industry for that sex sells is the first axiom of advertising, and sexual ads are everywhere. And in order to titillate a sexually jaded society, you have to push the boundaries. You have to be a bit more brazen than the last hot little number, a little more edgy (Bradford et al. 1999, 72) and this is exactly what many of black female rappers are currently doing to be successful.Unfortunately, the dominant sexual and racial ideologies in American culture result in the situation when portraying African-American women as stereotypical mummies, matriarchs, welfare recipients, and hot mommas helps justify US black womens oppression These controlling images are designed to make racism, sexism, poverty, and other forms of social injustice appear to be natural, normal, and inevitable parts of everyday life (Collins 2000, 70). Moreover, often black female rappers are portrayed as hutchies since men allowed many of them to rap. Hutchies is a term used by Joan Morgan in her book When ChickenheartedCome Home to Roost (2000) and it signifies women who use sex to get what they want from men. An example of such a type of black female rappers is Ill Kim. Consequently, the controlling image of black females becomes more and more widely spread and in general it is influenced by the dominant sexual and racial ideologies in which males play the main role and the desire to achieve commercial success force black females to create images the most attractive for the wide audience but unfortunately it results in the creation of an extremely negative image of black female that is very dangerous for the progress of black feminist movement.Conclusion: the future of black females in American rap music Thus, taking into considerations all above mentioned, it is possible to presuppose the future of black females in American culture at large and rap music in particular. The recent trends in the development of black female rap a re quite disturbing, particularly an unparalleled centralization of the industry, but it is necessary to point out that the similar trends are typical not only for females but for males as well as for other industries of pop culture.Nonetheless, this trend is basically the result of male dominated ideology that makes the progress of black female rappers to as effective as it could be. Furthermore, the perspective development of black female rap music would probably enhance this trend that would naturally lead to further exploitation of sexual images that would not improve the general image of black females which is now rather negative, according to the current images of black female rappers. On the other hand, there is still some room for hope to change the negative image of black females would eventually vanish due to the creation of new image of a real black female which has nothing in common that conservative and stereotypical dominant male ideologies tend to promote. Fortunately, this presupposition is not purely hypothetical but, on the contrary, it is quite realizable and the growing number of black female rappers is significant evidence in favor of such a perspective.

Free sample - Brand and Customer Behavior literature review. translation missing

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Governance and Ethics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

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Globalization and the gains from international trade Essay - 2

Globalization and the gains from international trade - Essay Example n controlling trade is still enormous and many governments are increasingly accepting it as the norm rather than the exception (Tung and Henry, 2009). Debates in recent times centre whether globalization is diminishing trade or increasing it. Questions have been raised on the state the traditional roles and national governments sovereignty play over trade, and the effects that these portend in promoting fairness or inequality among countries. Others have zeroed on the balance of trade and trade payments the less developed countries, the developing countries vis-Ã  -vis the developed world, and the focus on the glaring policy intervention differences between the global north and the global south. This paper states at the outset that: Whereas globalization has been touching on every aspect of society today, scholars and thinkers alike have not agreed on a universal single definition of the term. Instead, a number of definitions, conceptualizations, and perspectives exist depending on which lens one views the concept. In Kemp’s world, the gains must be examined within the confluence of world tarries such that no country in the pedestal of globalization would be worse off than in the smaller customs union (Kemp, 1987). Kemp (1987) observes that the phenomenon of globalization has been extensively used in the world, specifically in admired discourses and policy issues. For him, globalization is a term that describes ways in which the world is progressively more interrelated, organized, and interdependent through a set of socially reinforced processes that is controlled by customs. These processes include among others, integration of markets, nation states and technologies to a scale that is aiding individuals, corporations and distinct governments to access and ‘navigate’ the world much more, more rapidly, much deeper an by less costly methods (Kemp and Wong, 1995). Kemp further characterizes the global economy and trade as that which is based on spread and

GenerAges and Millennials in Adulthood Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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Prevention is better than cure

Prevention is better than cure Prevention is better than cure The current raging debate on healthcare should give us time to ponder over several issues. The need of the hour is to decrease the rapidly escalating cost of health care, expand its coverage and ensure that Medicare and Medicaid are viable future propositions. We should put our faith in the old adage that prevention is better than cure. Primary care should be easily accessible to USs uninsured and underinsured people. People should also be offered incentives in order to bring about much needed change in the ways they take care of their health. The Congress has a major role to play in making prevention the key and basic principal of health care reforms. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 133 million people in the country are victims of at least one chronic disease. It is estimated that more than 75% of the two trillion dollars allocated for health are being utilized to fight chronic diseases. The figures are alarming. One out of every four Americans may be victims of two or more chronic diseases by the year 2025. The majority of Medicares funds are spent on treating patients suffering from chronic illnesses. It is estimated that Medicaid spends 80% of its funds in treating chronic diseases which are increasing rapidly. The Congressional Budget Office prophesizes that unless drastic action is taken health care expenditure is likely to increase from 17 percent of GDP today to 49 percent in 2082. Federal expenditure on Medicare and Medicaid is expected to shoot up from 4 percent of GDP to a staggering   20 %. The silver lining on this ominous cloud is the fact that most chronic diseases can be prevented. Preventing a few can lead to a multiplier effect. If one were to launch a campaign of national awareness on how to decrease diabetes and obesity it will also lead to lesser number of   people suffering from heart disease and stroke besides reducing medical costs in addition to the trauma and suffering that a patient undergoes. These four chronic diseases alone consume 75% of one trillion dollars. A few skeptics claim that there would be negligible or very little savings from preventive measures. This fear however is unfounded as facts prove otherwise. A study published in the Annals of Internal Medicine in 2005 reveal that a federally sponsored program to prevent diabetes in pre diabetic patients generated remarkable cost savings. Several studies conducted prove conclusively that educating consumers about life style management and health care resulted in cutting down medical services by 20%. Academic health centers such as the Johns Hopkins University and the University of Maryland in Baltimore can play a pivotal role in conducting incentive based prevention programs. This will enable people at high risk to receive treatment at an early stage which can reduce medical costs drastically. A major drive for preventive health care is the need of the hour to keep health care costs under control otherwise courting disaster will be the only answer. Third article JAMA Application of Comparative Utilization Data in Managed care Organizations One of the main problems facing managed care organizations all over the US is data management. One of the key elements contributing to successful running of MCOs relies on the way they utilize data. A multi dimensional approach to data management is necessary for efficient working. One of the main contributing factors is the effective application of comparative utilization data. One of the chief advantages of using comparative utilization data is that it helps in cost cutting measures in the MCOs and thereby helps them to function efficiently. The MCOs can integrate comparative data into their UM process which will ensure better functioning. External benchmarking is of vital importance. It is of primary importance that MCO managers should make comparisons between their internal utilization patterns and accepted benchmarks from other communities. In performing this task MCO managers face problems like conformity in data-collection techniques as well as comparability between the subject and the benchmark data cost In order to get a clearer picture let us deal with the problems. Conformity of data is a challenging task. The healthcare industry tries its best to compile benchmark data. Several surveys are conducted for this purpose. If a survey is conducted regarding Cardiology costs $PMPM, should sub-capitate invasive cardiology be included? Should the EKGs done by internists who are specializing in cardiology be considered? Such questions demonstrate the pitfalls of collecting data through surveys. Data can prove to be of use if it contains claims-level detail. It should also be consistent Comparability is another hurdle which needs to be overcome. Most feel   â€Å"Data from other markets does not apply here in my City, U.S.A.† Many physicians are averse to considering data from other locales. They may go by the logic that they have higher imaging costs in so and so area as they have seven outpatient CT scanners serving 14000 patients. Such logic does not hold water. If the source of comparative actual data is understood, then it will be able to illuminate the MCOs data by comparison. The amount of services required by people residing in a particular locality should be predictable to a large extent though prices may vary. However there are solutions which will ensure efficient functioning if they are followed. Start benchmarking using good data which pass the conformity and comparability tests. The MCOs data should not have any weakness or loopholes. MCO should also learn to handle benchmark data with care. It should not be considered the last word. . It is to be used to â€Å"uncover clues that might lead to utilization management opportunities.† It is necessary to analyze all variations. If the analyst finds abnormal patterns he should find out a reason for it. Sometimes variations occur because of data errors, fee schedule differences random variation, population differences, regional health trends, benefit differences. Efficient benchmarking does not work without the involvement of physicians at every level. Successful intervention can take place only if there is a high level of communication. If MCOs are able to lay their hands on reliable and superior quality benchmarking data it will make them function more efficiently,   and benefit them in the long run. Fourth article Generic Drugs Many people are not aware of what the term generic drugs actually mean. Generic drugs are basically copies of brand name drugs even though it lacks patent protection.   New innovator medicines are marketed under brand names. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) generic drugs are identical in dose, strength, route of administration, safety, efficacy, and intended use as their brand name counterpart. These are as safe to use as their brand name drug from which they have been copied as the same ingredients are used in their preparation and they have the same effect on our body. The main advantage that generic drugs enjoy over brand name drugs is their cost. They are much cheaper. One of the main reasons behind this is that producers of generic drugs do not have to bear the investment cost like the company developing new drugs. They help companies like Medicare to reduce costs and save patients a lot of money. As these drugs do not enjoy patent protection they face stiff competition, hence they try to keep the price low. Most developing countries are going in for genetic drugs in a big way. Generic drugs can be produced when patents of brand name drugs are near expiration. Companies interested in manufacturing the generic drug can send an application to the FDA. Once approval is granted these drugs can be floated in the market. These drugs also enjoy the fruits of the marketing effort made by the patent drug company. Today generic drugs are widely used. They find their way into half of the prescriptions that qualified physicians write. The facilities used to manufacture both the brand name drug and generic drugs are the same as the two are identical. Generic drugs boast of the same quality as brand name drugs. The FDA prohibits drugs to be manufactured in sub standard facilities. Around 3,500 inspections are conducted by the FDA to ensure that the requisite standards are fulfilled. About half of the brand name firms also produce generic drugs. Many of them even make their own copies. Generic drugs however look different from the brand name drugs they have been copied from. In US trademark laws prohibits the generic drug to look identical to the brand name drug. However even if looks differ the constituents are the same. Colors and flavors are allowed to vary. Contrary to popular opinion all brand name drugs do not possess a generic version. Brand name drugs enjoy patent protection for a period of two decades. Other companies can bring out the generic version only after the patent expires and they gain FDA approval. The use of generic drugs is on the increase. According to IMS health the global sales of generic drugs have shot up from $29 billion in 2003 to $78 billion in 2008

Summary of Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx Essay -- Karl Marx Communi

Summary of Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx Introduction Karl Marx was born in 1818 into a middle-class, German family. During his studies, Marx was heavily influenced by the philosophy of Hegel. He joined a group called the â€Å"Young Hegelians.† The group, though â€Å"inspired by Hegel, [was] determined to champion the more radical aspects of the old master's system.†[i] Though he was a strong scholar, he got into trouble because of his radical political views.[ii] In 1847, together with fellow German, Freidrich Engels, Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto. The Central Authority of the Communist League approved The Communist Manifesto January of 1848, and the document began printing the next month.[iii] The manifesto was â€Å"inspired by the emergence of the modern working class, [he] developed a wholly new socialist outlook based upon the principle of socialism from below.†[iv] In Marx’s version of socialism, there were two central themes, one of which was that the working class had to libe rate themselves from their oppressors, and the other involved the working people overthrowing their current government to create a new, democratic society for themselves.[v] Summary of Section 1 Marx begins by showing that throughout all of history humans have divided themselves into certain ranks or classes. For example, in the Middle Ages social divisions were â€Å"feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, [and] serfs.†[vi] As long as social stratification has existed, one group or groups have been the oppressor while another group or groups have been the oppressed. The fight that exists between the oppressed and the oppressor is destine to end reconstruction of society triggered by revoluti... ...o of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.. New York: Russell and Russell, 1963. [vii] Marx [viii] Marx [ix] Marx [x] Marx [xi] Marx [xii] Marx [xiii] Marx [xiv] Marx [xv] Marx [xvi] Marx [xvii] Marx [xviii] Marx [xix] Marx [xx] Marx [xxi] Marx [xxii] Marx [xxiii] Marx [xxiv] Marx [xxv] Marx [xxvi] Brians, Paul. Study Guide for The Communist Manifesto. 15 March 2002 . LINKS TO: http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~brians/hum_303/manifesto.html Study Guide for The Communist Manifesto. http://marxist.org http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/marx.html http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/marx.htm http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/marx.htm http://www.classicnote.com/ClassicNotes/Titles/communist/ http://homepages.udayton.edu/~santamar